Ten Minutes for Physics Number 9 Action at a Distance Joseph M. Brown Basic Research Press Ten Minutes for Physics Number 9 Action at a Distance ( 2001 Copyright owned by Joseph M. Brown ISBN: 0-9712944-1-0 Published by Basic Research Press 120 East Main Street Starkville, MS 39759 United States of America www.basicresearchpress.com Ten Minutes for Physics Number 9 Action at a Distance Two bodies of matter attract each other as a result of their "gravitational fields." Two like-charged particles repulse each other as a result of their "electrostatic fields." Similarly, two unlike-charged particles attract each other. These types of forces causing these interactions vary in magnitude inversely with the square of the separation distance between the pieces of matter-and thus are called "long-range" forces. Bodies producing such fields that produce interactions are said to be causing "action at a distance." One way of producing action at a distance of one piece of matter upon another is to project part of this matter from one body (such as a rifle bullet) on to the other. This, of course, would only produce repulsive forces. A method of producing attractive forces would be to extend strings and hooks (such as in fishing gear) to grapple the other matter; then pull it back. Action at a distance does not imply the use of such mechanisms. In order to produce attractive and repulsive forces without the extension of matter from one body to another, it invariably has been assumed that the bodies must be immersed in some type of medium. The medium is simply the background gas of fundamental particles in the theory we are presenting here. A mechanism of producing attractive and repulsive (long-range) forces between bodies by using a medium has been known for some 150 years. Two elastic spheres immersed in water breathing in phase are pushed together by the water background, and thus the two spheres are attracted to each other. If the two spheres breathe in the most out-of-phase style then the background medium (the water) pushes them apart. The force magnitude depends upon the mass density of the medium and the amplitude of vibration, i.e., the amount the radius expands and contracts each cycle. Also, the force magnitude varies inversely with the square of the distance between centers of the spheres, and thus is a "long-range" force. In an elastic medium, even if the spheres breathe in phase if the separation distance is increased greatly the force can change to a repulsion force. Then, if the separation distance is doubled the force will again be a force of attraction. The orbiting neutrino making the proton produces a vibratory disturbance in the background just as the expanding and contracting sphere does in the two breathing sphere-water experiment. As distance from the proton increases, the disturbance becomes more nearly spherical. Two protons separated by a distance "r" much larger than the proton radius always repel each other just as do two spheres breathing out of phase, independent of their separation distance. Finally, we ask how can two opposite charges always be in phase so that they attract each other. Let us start with the simplest case of "action at a distance." E. T. Whittaker (Reference 1) discusses the history of this with reference to ether modeling of electromagnetic phenomena. We interpret those results in relation to kinetic particle modeling of the ether and electromagnetism. Consider an elastic sphere whose radius from the center to the surface can extend and contract in a sinusoidal manner. Let us take another identical elastic sphere. Let us immerse the two spheres in a large body of water. Assume the spheres are strong enough so that the water only slightly compresses the spheres. Let us have a way of constraining the spheres and also have a method for measuring the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on them averaged over a cycle of oscillation. Now, pulsate the spheres by having them repeatedly expand and contract radially. Let the period of oscillation for both spheres be the same as well as the vibration amplitude. Phasing of the oscillations is defined in the following manner: If both sphere radii are at equilibrium then they both expand at the same time, then return to equilibrium, contract, return to equilibrium, expand, etc. Then the two spheres are pulsing in phase. If they are at equilibrium and one expands while the other contracts the sphere pulsations are (or half a cycle) out of phase. Experiments were performed and the average force required to restrain each sphere was measured. The forces on the two spheres were equal and opposite. A theoretical analysis was obtained for the interaction. The resulting equation is given in Reference 2 and is where is the background mass density, v is the maximum oscillatory velocity, "a" is the mean radius, is the phase cycle, and R is the separation of the two sphere centers. For a sinusoidal motion with a frequency of the maximum velocity is , where is the maximum amplitude of vibration. Further, the frequency times the period (time for one complete cycle of oscillation, i. e. ) is given by. Now . The force thus is . As an example if two spheres in water (with a density of and 62.4/32.2 slugs per cubic foot) had radii of 6 inches, had an amplitude of one tenth inch, and a frequency of 100 cycles per second () then the force for zero phase angle is . If R were 5 ft. the force would be or . Consider next the kinetic particle model of the proton. In this model the proton is a neutrino orbiting at the speed of light with a radius determined by its angular momentum requirement, or where is Plancks constant, is the proton mass, is the proton orbital radius and "c" is the speed of light. Thus The orbiting neutrino takes in background gas particles and expulses them from its rocket-like tail. At a particular location at a distance of from the proton the disturbance would appear as a cyclical variation of pressure with a frequency of . This cyclical wave would be practically spherically symmetric. The greater the distance the more nearly spherically symmetric the disturbance would become. The strength of the wave, as measured by the variation of pressure, will decrease as the square of the distance between the centers. The period of the proton is Thus the force times the square of the separation distance (for in-phase pulsing) is What we need now is a way to estimate the effective amplitude "a" of vibration "" and the effective time average radius "a" of the oscillating sphere. We need effective values of this which would produce the same result at a distance of several proton radii as a breathing sphere would. A very simple assumption is to use the (half) amplitude of vibration (i. e., ) the same as the proton radius-which may be quite realistic. For the effective sphere radius "a" the "rocket tail" of the neutrino spurts out basic particles at a velocity equal to which is over ten times the orbital velocity. (The orbital velocity is Thus .) It follows that "a" probably should be assumed to be larger than . However, how much larger is difficult to estimate. Since we do not have a good method for estimating this we will just take "a" to be the same as . With the assumption that and we now have the force times the square of the separation distance as The force F is the force of repulsion between two protons. The forces of repulsion is known from experiments to be where "e" is the basic electrostatic charge. From equating () from the two expressions we have or Using we have Substituting , , and gives The primary difficulty is estimating from the electrostatic charge measurement is in determining the effective sphere radius "a" and, secondarily, the amplitude of pulsation "". Let us now discuss the problem of phasing of the pulsations of two protons. The neutrino making up the proton has angular momentum which is produced by the curved motion required to condense the background gas to reach the neutrino core. Thus, the neutrino translates and twists as it travels. The twist can be either right-handed or left-handed. The proton is made up of one handed neutrino and the anti-proton is made up of the opposite handed neutrino - this is the only difference in the structure of a particle and its anti-particle. It is not known which handedness makes which particle. The electrostatic fields are quantified-i.e., they are waves where each wave is produce by one orbit of the neutrino. The meshing of the waves produce the force and where the waves have the twist components produced by neutrinos with the same direction of twist, it is believed that the fields will not mesh and thus produce a repulsion. The proton and antiproton fields are produced by orbiting neutrinos of opposite twist-their fields mesh together and they attract each other. It is believed that when the proton is produced by knocking the correct mass neutrino in orbit and it forms its electrostatic field the electron with its electrostatic field is produced at the same time. The electron electrostatic field is just the opposite flow of the proton electrostatic field-so that the two fields just exactly neutralize each other, except for their different locations. References 1. Whittaker, E. T. A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Vol. 1 Page 282 Nelson and Sons, London, 1951. 2. A. B. Bassett, A Treatise on Hydrodynamics Vol. 1, Dover, NY 1961. Bibliography Brown, Joseph M. Fundamentals of Physics. ISBN: 0-9626768-1-0 Basic Research Press, Starkville, MS, 1999. 4 8